Maternal Factors, Breast Anatomy, and Milk Production During Established Lactation—An Ultrasound Investigation

Zoya Gridneva; Alethea Rea; David Weight; Jacki L. McEachran; Ching Tat Lai; Sharon L. Perrella; Donna T. Geddes

doi:10.3390/jimaging11090313

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Maternal Factors, Breast Anatomy, and Milk Production During Established Lactation—An Ultrasound Investigation

Journal article

Open access

Peer reviewed

Maternal Factors, Breast Anatomy, and Milk Production During Established Lactation—An Ultrasound Investigation

Zoya Gridneva, Alethea Rea, David Weight, Jacki L. McEachran, Ching Tat Lai, Sharon L. Perrella and Donna T. Geddes

Journal of imaging, Vol.11(9), 313

2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jimaging11090313

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Abstract

ultrasound

glandular tissue

milk ducts

breast anatomy

breastfeeding

lactation

milk production

body composition

Obesity is linked to suboptimal breastfeeding outcomes, yet the relationships between maternal adiposity, breast anatomy, and milk production (MP) have not been investigated. We conducted ultrasound imaging to assess the breast anatomy of 34 lactating women. The amount of glandular tissue (glandular tissue representation (GTR)) was classified as low, moderate, or high. Number and diameters of main milk ducts and mammary blood flow (resistive index) were measured. Women completed a 24 h MP measurement and an obstetric/lactation history questionnaire. Body composition was measured with bioimpedance spectroscopy. Statistical analysis employed correlation networks. Multiple relationships were revealed, with later menarche correlating with minimal pubertal and pregnancy breast growth. A minimal breast growth was further correlated with lower mammary blood flow during lactation and lower numbers and smaller diameters of main milk ducts, which in turn correlated with a lower MP. Importantly, higher adiposity also correlated with minimal breast growth during pregnancy and low GTR and MP. Several modifiable and non-modifiable maternal factors may be associated with breast development and MP. Antenatal lactation assessment and intervention in high-risk women may ensure they reach their full lactation potential and inform future interventions, such as maintaining healthy adiposity.

Details

Title: Maternal Factors, Breast Anatomy, and Milk Production During Established Lactation—An Ultrasound Investigation
Authors/Creators: Zoya Gridneva - The University of Western Australia
Alethea Rea - Murdoch University
David Weight - Murdoch University
Jacki L. McEachran - The University of Western Australia
Ching Tat Lai - The University of Western Australia
Sharon L. Perrella - The University of Western Australia
Donna T. Geddes - The University of Western Australia
Publication Details: Journal of imaging, Vol.11(9), 313
Publisher: MDPI
Identifiers: 991005813536207891
Murdoch Affiliation: School of Mathematics, Statistics, Chemistry and Physics; Centre for Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Sustainability
Language: English
Resource Type: Journal article

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