Michael Calver

Since last century conservation biologists, in common with researchers and practitioners in other disciplines with a strong applied focus, have complained of poor recognition by the broader academic community of authors whose important research is published in outlets with a low Journal Impact Factor (JIF) or no JIF. Ironically, low-JIF journals are often primary sources for much applied work of narrow regional or taxonomic interest essential for successful intervention on the ground. Publications in such outlets are often rated poorly in academic review, promotion, and tenure (RPT), so how can researchers be encouraged to make these important contributions and be recognised when they do? Here, we answer by documenting evidence confirming the publication priorities of high-JIF and low-JIF conservation journals, the value of some publications in low-ranked journals for conservation policy and practice, and the harms caused by focusing on JIF in RPT. Having established the validity of concerns regarding overusing JIF in evaluating conservation research and researchers, we overview strategies available to individual researchers facing JIF-focused evaluations of their work, alternative methods for RPT for consideration by relevant committees, and opportunities for collective action to achieve reform.

Australia's natural history museums, in common with similar institutions globally, face budget scrutiny. Research, which is less visible to the public than exhibitions, is vulnerable. To provide context to discussions of the value of museum research, we used citation analysis to explore how research publications of Australian Natural History Museum (ANHM) staff were used nationally and internationally, based on 9,923 relevant documents from 1981–2020. We identified the 50 most highly cited documents (Top 50), noting for each: number of citations, Field-Weighted Citation Impact (FWCI), number of authors, length in pages, subject area classifications and keywords, Open Access (OA) availability, collaboration within and outside Australia as revealed by authors’ affiliations and, to indicate national relevance, whether either ‘Australia’ or ‘Australian’ appeared in the title. For documents not included in the Top 50 we determined length, number of authors, OA availability, whether there were international authors, and whether the words ‘Australia’ or ‘Australian’ appeared in the title. We also calculated mean FWCI for all documents in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020 and benchmarked these against the international mean of 1 for FWCI. The Top 50 list documents had a high mean citation of 654 (range 329 – 2,055) with a mean FWCI of 13.4 (range 1.35 – 79.6), exceeding the world average of 1. Compared to other ANHM documents they had similar length, but more authors/document and greater international collaboration. Top 50 documents were also more likely to be available OA and less likely to include ‘Australia’ or ‘Australian’ in the title. ANHM documents outside the Top 50 had a mean FWCI between 1.0 and 1.3 in each of the five years examined, equalling or exceeding the world average of 1. We complemented citation analysis with descriptions of nine case studies of use of ANHM research other than citation, illustrating how the research assisted environmental policy and management by national and international government agencies, liaisons with Australian natural history societies with both academic and lay members, and education. Overall, ANHM research documents serve regional Australian interests, while often having international relevance.

For years observational studies of animal feeding behaviour relied on researchers with cameras, binoculars and notebooks, observing animals and recording where they foraged, how they captured prey and the foods taken. These data underpin species management plans, and developing and testing ecological hypotheses. This chapter describes how observational studies are conducted and analysed. Field studies benefit from diverse technological skills, careful design and statistical analyses. New technologies, such as camera traps and drones, complement and enrich standard observational techniques and extend observational work into unstudied environments, such as the open ocean. Observing animals in the field should be fun, improving both understanding and conservation management. This chapter is designed to encourage field studies.

Introduction
Over 100 years ago, McAtee (1912) set out to settle once and for all the debate on whether data on the contents of animal stomachs should be presented as percentage-by-bulk (the volume of each prey type; percentage volume or volumetric percentage) or numerically (based on counts of the number of individuals in each food type; numerical percentage). He didn’t succeed, with numerous other authors, including Pinkas et al. (1971) and Hart et al. (2002), also considering the question many years later. Indices combining multiple methods were proposed, while others argued strongly for presentation of the different methods individually to facilitate combining data across multiple studies in meta-analyses (Buckland et al. 2017). The story continues in Chapter 3, where the authors wrestle with the practical problems of identifying foods from stomach contents and quantifying the findings. The persistence of the debate confirms the ongoing interest in animal diets, acknowledging that there is still much discussion on how best to describe and quantify their important features. In this chapter we first outline the compelling reasons why it is important to study animal diets, grouping them under the themes of natural history, ecosystem function, food selection behaviour and practical applications. We then turn to the question of how to study animal diets, which is the primary focus of the book, explaining how the remaining chapters are structured to answer this question.

Quantifying Diets of Wildlife and Fish presents different techniques available to study animal diets. Ecologists determine animal diets to build natural history knowledge, test hypotheses in ecological theory and make informed management decisions for important ecosystems. Many researchers use techniques traditionally applied to the animals they study, rather than techniques with the greatest potential for the aims of each project. In an effort to encourage researchers to consider new approaches, this book focuses on the techniques, rather than on particular groups of organisms or specific environments.

With contributions from leading ecologists, chapters explore experimental design, observational techniques (including new technologies), stomach contents and faecal analysis, eDNA, tracers and stable isotopes. They also cover the latest multivariate methods of analyses suitable for describing animal diets and feeding relationships, as well as testing hypotheses relevant to ecological theory, environmental management and biological conservation. The expert knowledge provided will encourage readers to look beyond the boundaries of their specialties, assist in testing important hypotheses and provide insights into management problems. The examples in this book cover a range of vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as different environments, to open these methods up for novice ecologists and stimulate lateral thinking in more experienced researchers.

Camera trap model and setup choice can significantly affect data collection. This study investigated standard-angle Reconyx and wide-angle Swift camera traps in different setups and how the choice of equipment influenced detection and individual identification of the chuditch (Dasyurus geoffroii). Camera models were placed side-by-side in four setups: (i) single and (ii) paired camera traps 30 cm above ground; and single cameras (iii) 1 m and (iv) 2 m above ground, with a lure (tuna oil) in the centre of all setups. Swifts had a higher Detection probability than Reconyx, although the number of detections with identified individuals did not significantly differ between camera models. The 30 cm paired camera setups had the highest Detection and Identification probabilities for both camera models, with both probabilities decreasing as cameras were positioned higher. Camera model and setup choice are important in obtaining detection and identification data, and should be considered when planning studies and interpreting results.

Although the domestic cat Felis catus is implicated in multiple faunal extinctions and threatens many extant species, there is widespread, well‐funded advocacy for desexing unowned cats near human habitation and returning them to site to be fed by volunteers, arguing that this prevents euthanasia, is unlikely to be hazardous to wildlife or a public health risk, and controls non‐native rodents. To the contrary, we present unequivocal evidence that this approach harms cat welfare, does threaten wildlife and public health, and exacerbates rather than controls rodent problems. We argue instead that unowned cats near human habitation can be controlled effectively by intensive adoption and responsible euthanasia when necessary, supported by licensing and containment of adopted/owned cats.

Effective conservation of Australasian marsupials requires detailed knowledge of their food habits and activity patterns. Ancestral marsupials were probably nocturnal insectivores. Food habits of extant fauna are studied by techniques such as direct observations, analysis of prey remains in stomach contents or feces, field experiments, eDNA, stable isotope analysis, and chemical tracers. Species in the order Dasyuromorphia are mainly carnivorous, including insectivores, faunivores, and a specialist termite feeder, the Numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus. Those in the order Peramelemorphia are omnivorous, although dentition and gut anatomy suggest that some species might specialize. Diprotodontians comprise mainly herbivores such as kangaroos and possums, but also some omnivores and a family of extinct carnivores, the Thylacoleonidae. The diprotodont family Tarsipedidae includes only the Honey Possum Tarsipes rostratus which, uniquely, specializes on nectar and pollen; larger possums include substantial portions of foliage, petioles, and stems in their diets. Foraging usually occurs at night, but some marsupials meet their energetic and nutritional requirements via activity throughout the 24-h cycle, others are crepuscular, and one species – the Numbat – is diurnal. The activity patterns of some species appear to be invariant. In other species activity is modified by extrinsic factors including season, weather, environmental conditions, and biotic interactions such as predation and by intrinsic factors such as sex, age, and hunger. Although nocturnality is the basal condition, activity patterns in Australasian marsupials often represent a balance between the need to seek food and other resources and the risks that are inherent in leaving safe areas to acquire them.

As a case study of the responses of natural history museums to changing scientific and funding environments, we analysed research publications of Australia's Natural History Museums (ANHMs) 1981-2020. Using Scopus, 9,923 relevant documents 1981-2020 were identified, mainly research papers but with a growing proportion of reviews. The number of documents published increased over tenfold from 39 (1981) to 553 (2020), likely driven by collaborations (rising from 28.5% of documents 1981-1985 to 87.2% of documents 2016-2020), contributions from retired staff, and volunteer support. The mean length of documents (pages) ranged from a low of 15.3 in 2001-2005 to a high of 17.4 in 1991-1995, but this statistically significant result was trivial in practical terms. The sources (i.e., journals, book titles, conference proceedings) in which ANHM authors published changed over time, with growing proportions of publications in journals covering molecular ecology/phylogenetics and biological conservation. We identified the major areas of study canvassed within the corpus of publications by developing structural topic models based on patterns of word use in document titles, abstracts and keyword lists. The topics discovered included study subjects traditional for natural history museums (new taxa, phylogeny, systematics, animal morphology, palaeontology, minerals), new directions (molecular genetics, ecology, biological conservation) and marine biology (probably reflecting Australia's large coastline). Most citations came from Australia, USA and UK, although in 2016-2020 only 27.9% of citing documents included an Australian author. Growth in numbers of documents and collaborations, as well as use of documents internationally over a period of great change in scientific and funding environments, indicate an enduring legacy of ANHM research, grounded on the intrinsic value of the collections.