Michael Hughes

Lawns have evolved from medieval European grasslands into globally accepted urban green surfaces, serving recreational, aesthetic and cultural purposes. Today lawn surfaces are essential components of public urban green space (PUGS), fulfilling ecosystem services such as urban heat mitigation, carbon sequestration and social well-being. However, their ecological and resource-intensive disservices, particularly in dry climates, have prompted growing concerns among environmental scientists, urban planners and landscape designers. In water-scarce regions like Perth, Western Australia, traditional lawns face increasing scrutiny due to their high irrigation demands and limited ecological diversity. This study contributed to the transdisciplinary LAWN as Cultural and Ecological Phenomenon project, focusing on the perspectives of professionals, landscape architects, park managers, turf producers and researchers responsible for the planning, design and management of urban lawn in PUGS. Using qualitative methods (semi-structured in-depth interviews), the research explores expert insights on the values, challenges and future trajectories of lawn use in a warming, drying climate. The interviews included 21 participants. Findings indicate that while professionals acknowledge lawns’ continued relevance for sports and active recreation, water scarcity is a major concern influencing design and species selection. Alternatives such as drought-tolerant plants, hard landscaping and multifunctional green spaces are increasingly considered for non-sporting areas. Despite growing concerns, the ideal lawn is still envisioned as an expansive, green, soft surface, mirroring entrenched public preferences. This study underscores the need to balance environmental sustainability with public preference and cultural expectations of green lawns. Balancing expert insights with public attitudes is vital for developing adaptive, water-conscious landscape design strategies suited to future urban planning and environmental conditions in Mediterranean climates.

This chapter examines the social impacts of hosting sporting events in natural areas, focusing on the potential conflicts between environmental conservation and recreational use. It discusses the challenges of balancing the economic benefits of such events with the need to protect natural landscapes and biodiversity. The chapter calls for more comprehensive planning and management strategies to ensure that sporting events do not compromise the ecological integrity of natural areas. It highlights the importance of stakeholder engagement and sustainable tourism practices to address these issues.

Context: Cockburn Sound is the most intensively used embayment in Western Australia (WA), including industrial use as well as a wide range of recreational activities and associated values. The Western Australia Environmental Protection Authority identified general recreational use as a significant component of the social and aesthetic values of Cockburn Sound that pre-dates its industrial development. Consequently, Cockburn Sound is a highly contested and increasingly congested space. While Cockburn Sound hosts a range of recreational activities, much of the management attention is on recreational fishing while non-fishing recreational activities have received relatively less attention. Therefore, this project focused on understanding non-fishing recreational activities and values in the Sound. Mapping non fishing recreational use activities and associated values provides spatially explicit information on how Cockburn Sound is used and valued through a broad range of activities that represent the complex public recreational use context for Cockburn Sound management and the Westport development.

Project Aims:
• Identify the range and spatial extent of non-fishing recreational activities and associated values
• Provide an economic valuation for key recreational sites identified by the PPGIS process
• Provide a detailed understanding of non-fishing recreational activities and values

Method A public participation GIS (PPGIS) approach was used to map the variety and types of non-fishing recreational activities and associated values in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. An online questionnaire was developed using the Maptionnaire online PPGIS survey tool as a platform (Maptionnaire 2022). The questionnaire gathered respondent data including demographics, frequency of visit and mode of travel to Cockburn Sound. Respondents used an interactive map to place specific points and/or lines relating to a recreational activity they undertake in Cockburn Sound. Water-based and land-based activities were mapped separately by respondents during the survey. Respondents could place as many activities as lines or points as they wished. Respondents also indicated one or more values they associated with each of the recreational activities they mapped. The activities and values were selected by respondents from drop-down lists. The lists were developed by the project team based on a review of relevant literature. A travel cost model approach was used to evaluate the monetary value attributable to recreational use of key sites in Cockburn Sound. The PPGIS questionnaire was distributed online between August 2022 and February 2023 using a range of methods including recreational clubs distributing online via their social media platforms and member contact lists, notices with a QR code placed in local community centres and businesses, and the WAMSI social media platforms.

Key Findings The questionnaire received 597 responses and a total of 31 non-fishing recreational activities were identified and mapped in Cockburn Sound including 16 land-based activities and 15 water-based activities. A considerable proportion of survey respondents were members of a club or organization associated with the recreational activity mapped by the respondent (approximately 75%).

The northern end of the study area (Woodman Point Reserve) was most frequently visited by survey respondents for both land and water-based recreational activities. This likely to be related to accessibility and facilities in this area of the Sound.

Mapped land-based activities were concentrated at the northern (Woodman Point Reserve), and southern (Rockingham foreshore and Cape Peron) areas of the Sound with an additional concentration adjacent to and just south of the Beeliar Regional Park shoreline area.

Mapped water-based activities covered the entire Cockburn Sound area as well as areas to the west of Garden Island.

The entire study area was associated with one or more recreational activity values. The most commonly allocated values included ‘have fun’, ‘improve physical health’ and ‘socialise with friends and family’.

The travel cost analysis was restricted by the small number of respondents providing the required data for each activity in each zone defined for the analysis. In person intercept surveys would provide more comprehensive data but project budget limitations meant this method was not possible.

Some activities had adequate data, including horse riding/exercising, beach activities and walking/running activities. The estimated value of a trip to the Naval Base horse beach was $14.75 per trip, which was relatively high compared to other beach activity value studies. The estimated value of a trip for beach activities was between $6.74 and $7.35 per trip. Walking and running activities were valued between $3.19 and $4.09 per trip.

Online PPGIS tools enable collection of data from a large and/or dispersed population within a limited time frame and budget. However, there is a trade-off between acquiring a large enough sample within a short time frame and the depth and quality of the data.

Conclusions Both land and water-based recreational users value the entire Cockburn Sound area to fulfil a diverse set of activities. This means the recreational carrying capacity of the region may be relatively high in this respect. However, there are several specialised and spatially focused recreational activities which should be considered in planning decisions.

This study focused on visitors undertaking recreational activities at two important wetland conservation reserves with two main aims: to understand if visitors recognize the significant role of wetlands as vital bird habitat, and to understand the importance of birds as part of the visitor experience. We surveyed 511 visitors at two internationally significant urban wetlands in Perth, Western Australia. Results indicated that respondents valued wetland areas for exercising, aesthetic values, utility of infrastructure and general amenity, as well as the presence of birds. Some respondents perceived that the wetlands were important for birds and the presence of birds was generally rated highly. Results further indicated that while birds were generally not the focus of visitor experience, birds were an important component of that experience. We conclude that most visitors will generally support management actions aimed at conserving the wetlands and birdlife, and management actions do not need to consider a range of differing views across different recreational activities. Thus, understanding the extent that different recreational users of urban wetlands value birds and bird habitat provides vital insights into management approaches for conservation.

Communication is a strategic management lever for promoting user knowledge, understanding, acceptance, support, and conservation-related pro-environmental behavior within Coastal and Marine Protected Areas (CMPAs). But while user segmentation is considered a traditional operational tool for targeting user audiences effectively within terrestrial protected areas, research also highlights a low level of concrete application to CMPAs. Based on Public Perceptions Research literature, this study explores a panel of eight theoretical variables that reflect the multidimensional character of recreationists’ perceptions of CMPAs and how the related results could inform appropriate CMPA communication strategies. Onsite face-to-face interviews with 1,000 users were conducted for seven recreational activities (hiking, surfing, scuba-diving, boating, sailing, kite-surfing, kayaking) across a total of ten local sites. Results revealed that despite sharing a common motivation for being in contact with nature, recreationists expressed diverse perceptions and attitudes toward CMPAs and management, which can be divided into five segments: “CMPA-Not-convinced” (31.3% of all recreationists), “CMPA-Local Conservator” (11.5%), “CMPA-Not-Responsible” (12.7%), “CMPA-Passers-by” (20.1%) and “CMPA-Convinced” (24.4%). Findings show the value of visitor segmentation as an operational tool to inform CMPA management and communication strategies in a context of low knowledge about visitor audiences.

Lawns, introduced in Australia through English colonial heritage, dominate public spaces in cities, serving various ecosystem functions. Australian lawns consist of non-native grasses that differ from native original vegetation and require intensive management and maintenance. This study explores public perspectives on urban lawns in Perth, Western Australia, an area largely overlooked in ecological and social research in the context of Australia compared to Europe and North America. This paper presents empirical research on public perceptions of urban lawns and alternatives in Perth, Western Australia. The study explores social values and preferences regarding traditional lawns and new options, considering visual appearance, uses, and maintenance. Findings from an online questionnaire, involving 171 respondents, identified seven categories based on a content analysis of lawn definitions: flat area; ground covered by grass; maintained; non-native vegetation; open space; recreational space; and turf grass. The results revealed that respondents most value lawns for aesthetics, cooling and recreation (exercises, walking pets, as a transit area, passive recreation, and social gatherings). At the same time, participants demonstrated an environmental awareness of lawns and the necessity of revisiting the existing planning and maintenance routine based on irrigation and intensive mowing by considering several alternative solutions. While valuing new solutions such as Scaevola patches in dedicated areas and “weedy lawns”, participants still preferred alternatives closest in appearance to a conventional lawn (e.g., lawn grass with Dichondra and lawn grass with clover). The study emphasizes the need for a ‘blended model’ of urban lawns, combining durability with heat-resistant, biodiverse vegetation to address social values and environmental concerns.

This chapter is an explanation of scale based on my research with Roy Jones and Michael Hughes on the Ningaloo Coast in Western Australia. Scale is a crucial tool as it reveals how contests, politics and ethics shape flows of resources, and so become inseparable from the physical forms of heritage phenomena and demonstrates the links between the physical, human and non-human forces that shape heritage.

Urban nature and ways of protecting, designing and even mimicking natural processes are some of the most popular themes inspiring humanities and natural science studies in different disciplines around the globe. Urban nature, green infrastructure and nature-based solutions are three intertwined concepts. This paper will highlight some of the many visions for urban nature (e.g., four urban natures: native, cultivated, designed/horticultural and spontaneous natures) and interpretations of nature-based solutions. While there are some similarities in the interpretation of urban natures by different disciplines, some significant differences exist. This paper analyses and synthesises knowledge from divergent theoretical concepts of urban natures in Europe and Australia, and the associated ecological concepts of novel and designed ecosystems. The complexity of urban natures and native landscapes has fostered the development of several typologies that often lead to misunderstanding between discipline areas and difficulties with practical implementation, such as in urban planning or landscape design. We argue that differences in interpreting the scope of urban nature are often underlined by the specific socio-political, historical, cultural and ecological contexts of a country or region (e.g., Australia and Europe). By applying an interdisciplinary approach, we explore the concept of urban natures by analysing and synthesising links between different disciplines. A transdisciplinary perspective is an important premise for collaboration between ecological sciences and landscape architecture in many restoration projects, or when social and ecological sciences jointly address societal challenges with the help of nature-based solutions co-created using participatory approaches. The latter highlights the role of transdisciplinary research to link practitioners, policymakers and scientists, helping to engage with citizens and inform design. The analysis of several examples from Europe and Australia allowed us to depict different approaches to existing urban natures and methods of their design, enhancement and conservation. These examples highlight that different urban natures are sources of inspiration for nature-based solutions that can be successfully implemented in contemporary landscape and planning practice.

Urban vegetation provides many social and environmental benefits, yet integrating diverse vegetation into urban areas can be difficult due to spatial and financial constraints. Naturalistic streetscape plantings have gained popularity as a method to improve vegetation diversity without requiring additional land or maintenance costs. In temperate climates, these plantings are typically meadow-style and informed by research on people’s preferences. Yet in mediterranean-type climates, naturalistic plantings reflect shrub-dominated native vegetation, for which public aesthetic preferences are largely unknown. To address this gap we conducted an online survey in Perth, Australia where respondents (n = 985) rated their preferences for 32 computer-generated images of public streetscape, naturalistic, woody plantings that differed in structure (low (<1 m), mid, and upper (>2 m)), flower presence, foliage colour, and visual symmetry. These were compared to an image of low-input lawn, representing a typical local government-maintained streetscape. We also assessed how environmental worldviews, plant knowledge, demographics, and suburb scale tree cover influenced preferences. Naturalistic woody plantings were liked by 88%, and lawn disliked by 87% of respondents. The most preferred aspects of naturalistic plantings were multiple structural layers, flowers, and both green and grey foliage. Positive preferences for naturalistic plantings and dislike of lawn were stronger from respondents with pro-environmental worldviews, greater plant knowledge, and who resided in suburbs with higher tree cover. Therefore, we recommend naturalistic woody plantings as a publicly acceptable method to improve streetscape quality. Overall, this research provides insights into the nexus between social and ecological values of streetscape plantings for the planning and design of sustainable urban greening in a warming, drying mediterranean-type climate. [Display omitted]

As recreational fishers act relatively autonomously, management relies heavily on voluntary compliance. Therefore, understanding fishers’ views on management options can be beneficial. This study used a two-phase approach of face-to-face interviews and subsequent online questionnaires to evaluate recreational fishers’ salient views on issues affecting the Blue Swimmer Crab (Portunus armatus) and Black Bream (Acanthopagrus butcheri) fisheries in Western Australia as well as current and potential management arrangements, including stock enhancement. The strength and heterogeneity of views were also determined. Minimum size limits were mainly considered acceptable or very acceptable, with restricting recreational fishing and spatial closures the least supported management options for both species, in addition to maximum size limits for crabs. These views were not always consistent across fishing locations for each species and among types of crab fishers, indicating heterogeneity in views. Stocking was the most acceptable of the management measures not already utilised for crabs and among the most popular for bream fisheries. Recreational fishers of both species believed stock enhancement could have strong positive outcomes for the abundance of their target species and increase their subsequent catches. They also recognized that some negative outcomes, e.g., increased fishing pressure and environmental issues, might occur but considered them unlikely.