Mike Anderson

In this chapter, the authors aim to detail Annette’s influence on their attempts to shed light on key theoretical questions concerning the nature of intelligence. A great amount of research, some undoubtedly inspired by Annette’s work, has produced a great amount of data evidencing differences in the capabilities of children at various ages. However, Annette was crystal-clear on this point: taking development seriously does not mean simply that one must study children – it is not about cataloguing what children can and cannot do at different ages. Though certainly a troubled history, the study of intelligence has nevertheless revealed important empirical facts that beg the development of better theories. Next, the authors briefly outline these facts and describe why the time has come for the discipline of psychology to finally engage with the core construct of intelligence – g.

Objective Provide updated older adult (ages 60+) normative data for the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS), Form A, using regression techniques, and corrected for education, age, and gender. Method Participants (aged 60–93 years; N = 415) were recruited through the Healthy Ageing Research Program (HARP), University of Western Australia, and completed Form A of the RBANS as part of a wider neuropsychological test battery. Regression-based techniques were used to generate normative data rather than means-based methods. This methodology allows for the control of demographic variables using continuous data. To develop norms, the data were assessed for: (1) normality; (2) associations between each subtest score and age, education, and gender; (3) the effect of age, education, and gender on subtest scores; and (4) residual scores which were converted to percentile distributions. Results Differences were noted between the three samples, some of which were small and may not represent a clinically meaningful difference. Younger age, more years of education, and female gender were associated with better scores on most subtests. Frequency distributions, means, and standard deviations were produced using unstandardized residual scores to remove the effects of age, education, and gender. Conclusions These normative data expand upon past work by using regression-based techniques to generate norms, presenting percentiles, as well as means and standard deviations, correcting for the effect of gender, and providing a free-to-use Excel macro to calculate percentiles.

In two studies, the relationship between sleep and working memory performance was investigated in children born very preterm (i.e., gestation less than 32 weeks) and the possible mechanisms underlying this relationship. In Study 1, parent-reported measures of snoring, night-time sleep quality, and daytime sleepiness were collected on 89 children born very preterm aged 6 to 7 years. The children completed a verbal working memory task, as well as measures of processing speed and verbal storage capacity. Night-time sleep quality was found to be associated with verbal working memory performance over and above the variance associated with individual differences in processing speed and storage capacity, suggesting that poor sleep may have an impact on the executive component of working memory. Snoring and daytime sleepiness were not found to be associated with working memory performance. Study 2 introduced a direct measure of executive functioning and examined whether sleep problems would differentially impact the executive functioning of children born very preterm relative to children born to term. Parent-reported sleep problems were collected on 43 children born very preterm and 48 children born to term (aged 6 to 9 years). Problematic sleep was found to adversely impact executive functioning in the very preterm group, while no effect of sleep was found in the control group. These findings implicate executive dysfunction as a possible mechanism by which problematic sleep adversely impacts upon cognition in children born very preterm, and suggest that sleep problems can increase the cognitive vulnerability already experienced by many of these children.

Children born very preterm (<32 weeks gestational age) are known to be at increased risk of neurocognitive impairments, in domains including executive functioning, processing speed, and fluid and crystallised intelligence. Given the close association between these constructs, the current study investigated a specific model, namely whether executive functioning and/or processing speed mediates the relationship between preterm birth and intelligence. Participants were 204 children born very preterm and 98 full-term children, who completed a battery of tasks measuring executive functioning, processing speed, and fluid and crystallised intelligence. Independent-samples t-tests found significantly poorer performance by children born preterm on all measures, and a confirmatory factor analysis found preterm birth to be significantly related to each of the cognitive domains. A latent-variable mediation model found that executive functioning fully mediated the associations between preterm birth and both fluid and crystallised intelligence. Processing speed fully mediated the preterm birth-fluid intelligence association, but only partially mediated the preterm birth-crystallised intelligence association. Future research should consider a longitudinal study design to test whether these deficits and mediating effects remain throughout childhood and adolescence.

Aim To estimate the association between very preterm birth (<32wks' gestation) and intelligence, executive functioning, and processing speed throughout childhood and adolescence, and to examine the effects of gestational age, birthweight, and age at assessment. Method Studies were included if children were born at earlier than 32 weeks’ gestation, aged 4 to 17 years, had an age-matched term control group, and if the studies used standardized measures, were published in an English-language peer-reviewed journal, and placed no restrictions on participants based on task performance. Results We evaluated 6163 children born very preterm and 5471 term-born controls from 60 studies. Children born very preterm scored 0.82 SDs (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.74–0.90; p<0.001) lower on intelligence tests, 0.51 SDs (95% CI 0.44–0.58; p<0.001) lower on measures of executive functioning, and 0.49 SDs (95% CI 0.39–0.60; p<0.001) lower on measures of processing speed than term-born controls. Gestational age and birthweight were associated with study effect size in intelligence and executive functioning of younger children only. Age at assessment was not associated with study effect size. Interpretation Children born very preterm have medium to large deficits in these cognitive domains. What this paper adds This meta-analysis is centred on very preterm birth and three cognitive domains. The three critical cognitive domains are intelligence, executive functioning, and processing speed.

Inhibition and switching are executive functions (EFs) that have different developmental trajectories across childhood. The development of specific processes unique to each EF may contribute to these trajectories. Interference suppression and reversal were examined in a large sample of children aged 7 and 9 years (n = 120) and followed-up after two-years to investigate developmental trajectories of inhibition and switching. The N2 and P3b components provided neural correlates of conflict monitoring and attentional processing of conflict involved in interference suppression and reversal. Interference suppression improved over time, however, switching performance did not significantly change between 7-11 years. Improvements in correct RT with age and time indicated increased efficiency of stimulus evaluation, response preparation and execution. N2 amplitude decreased with both age and time, indicating less reliance on conflict monitoring to signal cognitive control to manage stimulus and response conflict. P3b amplitude modulations indicated that different amounts of attention were allocated to updating mental representations of interference suppression and reversal task features. These data indicated different developmental trajectories of specific processes unique to inhibition and switching across the childhood period of 7-11 years, providing further empirical evidence that 7-11 years is a critical period for cognitive development.

Goal maintenance is the process where task rules and instructions are kept active to exert their control on behavior. When this process fails, an individual may ignore a rule while performing the task, despite being able to describe it after task completion. Previous research has suggested that the goal maintenance system is limited by the number of concurrent rules which can be maintained during a task, and that this limit is dependent on an individual's level of fluid intelligence. However, the speed at which an individual can process information may also limit their ability to use task rules when the task demands them. In the present study, four experiments manipulated the number of instructions to be maintained by younger and older adults and examined whether performance on a rapid letter-monitoring task was predicted by individual differences in fluid intelligence or processing speed. Fluid intelligence played little role in determining how frequently rules were ignored during the task, regardless of the number of rules to be maintained. In contrast, processing speed predicted the rate of goal neglect in older adults, where increasing the presentation rate of the letter-monitoring task increased goal neglect. These findings suggest that goal maintenance may be limited by the speed at which it can operate.