John Edwards

The Malaysia–Thailand–Myanmar (Burma) (MTM) zone was established in 2003 following a decision by the South-East Asia Foot-and-Mouth Disease Campaign (SEAFMD) in 2001 to establish a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD)-free zone within South-East Asia as an effective way to control FMD in the region. The MTM peninsula was selected based on favourable geographic features (Banks 2004) and strong political support from the proposed member countries. The MTM zone comprises the southern division of Burma, regions eight and nine of Thailand and the whole of Peninsular Malaysia (see Figure 1) (Turton 2004). As a prototype for later zoning initiatives in the region, the MTM is an important component of the SEAFMD campaign. However, almost 10 years since the MTM zone was conceptualised, FMD continues to occur on a regular basis throughout much of the zone (OIE 2010). The aim of the research reported here is to build on existing knowledge of FMD in the region by considering the epidemiology of FMD in the zone, why disease control efforts have been unsuccessful thus far, factors that threaten the success of the zone and ways in which the disease might be controlled more successfully in the future.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a severe, highly communicable viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, buffaloes, pigs, sheep and goats. Although FMD does not result in high mortality in most outbreaks, the disease is debilitating and leads to significant economic losses from its impact on trade. FMD has a significant impact on livestock systems due to lower production of infected animals resulting from reduced food intake, reduced meat and milk production and draught capacity, and losses from reduced trade and tourism-related activities (Kazimi and Shan 1980; Morris et al. 2002; Perry et al. 2002). Before this study, there was little epidemiological information on which to formulate logical procedures for control. A further constraint to the development of extension programs for the control of FMD is the lack of information about the disease, including its prevalence and incidence and the direct and indirect losses incurred. The current study was developed to better understand the pattern of FMD and the risk attributed to the spread of the disease in Cambodia. This information will be used to underpin the estab¬lishment of a progressive zoning approach to control FMD in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB).

The potential for zoonotic emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) to spread worldwide is immense. Geographical boundaries can be uncertain and management of disease crises, biosecurity and health risks is a huge task that requires cooperation and understanding from many parts of the public and private sectors. A glimpse of this has been seen over the years during epidemics, including the bovine spongiform encephalopathy or mad cow disease outbreak in the United Kingdom, Hendra virus outbreaks among horses in Australia, Nipah virus spread in Malaysia and Singapore, and the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreaks in Asia. In the last decade, highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 (HPAI H5N1), or ‘bird flu’, outbreaks have also been a focus of global attention. These zoonotic EIDs have predominantly affected countries in South-East Asia. Why is this so? One obvious factor is the way animals are raised, slaugh¬tered and prepared for food consumption. There are certain animal-rearing practices and human health beliefs in countries in the region that need to be recognised before control programs can be designed. Governance and institutional systems also function differently in countries in the region, affecting the enactment of policies to support biosecurity risk management and preparedness. International non-government organisations, donor agencies and other humanitarian organisations have supported countries in the region to help eradicate HPAI H5N1. Assistance is given through technical and funding support necessary to build local capacity for disease control, as well as to institute prepared¬ness plans and manage health and biosecurity risks. Resources are poured into the establishment of emergency plans and protocols to prepare for a possible influenza pandemic to minimise global catastrophe.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that has a significant impact on the economy and livestock productivity of affected coun¬tries. We investigated the epidemiology of FMD in a potentially free (Tanintharyi) and an endemic (Sagaing) region of Burma (Myanmar). The serological study demonstrated that the prevalence of FMD in Sagaing township was very high, with an overall seroprevalence (individual level) of 42% (95% CI 38–47). However, the prevalence varied from 22% (95% CI 3–41) to 68% (95% CI 55–81) in the studied villages. All 17 villages sampled had some positive reactors in cattle to the Cedi® FMD virus (FMDV) non-structural pro¬tein (NSP) ELISA tests and it is assumed the virus is circulating within and between the villages by a variety of means. The village-level prevalence was 100%; a village was considered infected if one or more animals were positive. The possible sources of FMD in those locations were analysed using a logistic regression model and found to be associated with communal grazing, using only underground water sources, or purchasing cattle in March annually. In contrast, FMD was negatively associated with trading of cattle within the same village where the farmers possessed less than 10 cattle