Phillip Arena

The wildlife fashion industry involves diverse products that include animal skin, feathers, fur, and curios as part of various apparel, footwear, and many other accessories. Positive messaging by advocates of the wildlife fashion industry frequently promotes products as sustainably sourced and beneficial for species conservation. To assess potential veracity of conservation claims by the wildlife fashion industry we conducted a rapid evidence assessment, brief survey, and novelty stress-test regarding data used by key regulatory sectors concerning four example species within the sector (Australian saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), reticulated pythons (Malayopython reticulatus), Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus), and South African ostriches (Struthio camelus australis)). We collated information via online literature searches, requests to government agencies, and the CITES Secretariat. No relevant data were provided by any government agency nor by CITES to support claims that the wildlife fashion industry benefits conservation of the four target species. We conclude that reliance on the commercial sector for objective and impartial data or other input appears imprudent, and that both the nature and source of information used for policy-making requires transparency and reform. We recommend wider use of the precautionary principle, which should be supported with high-level monitoring and enforcement, as well as improved information and education.

Snakes are sentient animals and should be subject to the accepted general welfare principles of other species. However, they are also the only vertebrates commonly housed in conditions that prevent them from adopting rectilinear behavior (ability to fully stretch out). To assess the evidence bases for historical and current guidance on snake spatial considerations, we conducted a literature search and review regarding recommendations consistent with or specifying ≥1 × and <1 × snake length enclosure size. We identified 65 publications referring to snake enclosure sizes, which were separated into three categories: peer-reviewed literature (article or chapter appearing in a peer-reviewed journal or book, n = 31), grey literature (government or other report or scientific letter, n = 18), and opaque literature (non-scientifically indexed reports, care sheets, articles, husbandry books, website or other information for which originating source is not based on scientific evidence or where scientific evidence was not provided, n = 16). We found that recommendations suggesting enclosure sizes shorter than the snakes were based entirely on decades-old ‘rule of thumb’ practices that were unsupported by scientific evidence. In contrast, recommendations suggesting enclosure sizes that allowed snakes to fully stretch utilized scientific evidence and considerations of animal welfare. Providing snakes with enclosures that enable them to fully stretch does not suggest that so doing allows adequate space for all necessary normal and important considerations. However, such enclosures are vital to allow for a limited number of essential welfare-associated behaviors, of which rectilinear posturing is one, making them absolute minimum facilities even for short-term housing.

Exotic pets are essentially animals that are non-native to a region and/or non-domesticated. The trade in and keeping of exotic pets has been frequently criticized for the commonly inhumane and harmful practices that are associated with supply and keeping, including: animal welfare, species conservation, invasiveness, and public health and safety. Relatedly, a growing issue is that of unwanted exotic pets handed to animal care centers due to their overly demanding requirements and the confiscation of animals suffering from abuse. Mis-selling exotic species as ‘easy to keep’ or ‘beginner’ animals is widely regarded to be a major common and problematic factor. Efforts, post pet acquisition, to educate sellers and keepers to improve animal welfare and public health issues have proven unproductive. We propose that a system is required that facilitates decision-making at the interface between sale and purchase sectors, and that utilizes clear evidence-based labeling. We review current options for developing such a pet labeling scheme and recommend a novel approach based on the EMODE (‘Easy’, ‘Moderate’, ‘Difficult’ or ‘Extreme’) pet suitability assessment tool to provide a preventative educational approach to alleviating the multifactorial issues of concern.

Captive environments for snakes commonly involve small enclosures with dimensions that prevent occupants from adopting straight line body postures. In particular, the commercial, hobby, and pet sectors routinely utilize small vivaria and racking systems, although zoos and other facilities also commonly maintain at least some snakes under broadly similar conditions. Captive snakes may be the only vertebrates where management policy commonly involves deprivation of the ability and probable welfare need to freely extend the body to its natural full length. In this report we present background information concerning some relevant physical and behavioral characteristics of snakes, discuss pervading beliefs or folklore husbandry and its implications for animal welfare as well as factors concerning stress, its manifestations and measurement, and provide criteria for the assessment of captive snake welfare. As part of this review, we also conducted an observational component involving captive snakes and report that during 60-minute observation periods of 65 snakes 24(37%) adopted rectilinear or near rectilinear postures (stationary 42%; mobile 37%). Of the 31 snake species observed, 14(45%) adopted rectilinear or near rectilinear postures. Ectomorphological associations, normal behavior and innate drive states infer that snakes, even so-called sedentary species, utilize significant space as part of their normal lifestyles. We conclude that future policies for snake husbandry require a paradigm shift away from an erroneous belief system and toward recognising the greater spatial needs of these reptiles.

Various establishments exist in which animals are held for a variety of reasons. Historically, the management and inspection of animals in commerce and in private keeping have involved a considerable degree of arbitrary evaluation based on the personal experience of the vendor, keeper, advisor, or inspector. Accordingly, relevant protocols and standards are subject to considerable variation. Relatedly, diversity of traded and privately kept species generates significant challenges for those responsible for facility management and inspection alike. Animal welfare and public health and safety are constant and major concerns that require objective methodologies to monitor and control. This report focuses on establishments concerned with the boarding, breeding, storage, vending or handover of animals intended for human “companions” or “pets”, and aims to provide universal objective information for essential husbandry, inspection protocols and an allied inspection assessment tool for scoring establishments.

Various captivity-related health problems have been described as arising in the farming of sea turtles at the Cayman Turtle Farm (CTF). Our study included a desktop review of turtle farming, direct onsite inspection at the CTF, assessment of visual materials and reports provided by investigators from the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), and a limited analysis of water quality for potential pathogens. In particular, we assessed physical and behavioural condition of animals for signs of stress, injury and disease. During the onsite inspection we identified three distinct signs of physical injury and disease, six distinct signs of abnormal and problematic arousal- and discomfort-related behaviour; and three distinct signs of normal quiescence- and comfort-related behaviour. On evaluation of evidence provided by the WSPA we identified ten distinct signs of physical injury and disease, and management- or genetic-related conditions; six distinct signs of abnormal and problematic arousal- and discomfort-related behaviour; and three distinct signs of normal quiescence- and comfort-related behaviour. We conclude that sea turtles at the CTF manifested important physical and behavioural signs that are indicative of problematic management and captivity-related stress, and the limitations of sea turtle adaptive plasticity in captivity. The problematic physical and behavioural signs, in our view, related to the inherent nature of intensive turtle propagation which in particular involves overt- and crypto-overcrowding and understimulating environments, and an associated failure to meet all the physical, biological and innate behavioural needs of sea turtles.

Exposure to sea turtles may be increasing with expanding tourism, although reports of problems arising from interaction with free-living animals appear of negligible human health and safety concern. Exposure both to wild-caught and captive-housed sea turtles, including consumption of turtle products, raises several health concerns for the public, including: microbiological (bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi), macrobiological (macroparasites), and organic and inorganic toxic contaminants (biotoxins, organochlorines and heavy metals). We conducted a review of sea turtle associated human disease and its causative agents as well as a case study of the commercial sea turtle facility known as the Cayman Turtle Farm (which receives approximately 240,000 visitors annually) including the use of water sampling and laboratory microbial analysis which identified
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
,
Aeromonas
spp.,
Vibrio
spp. and
Salmonella
spp. Our assessment is that pathogens and toxic contaminants may be loosely categorized to represent the following levels of potential risk:
viruses
and
fungi
=
very low
;
protozoan parasites
=
very low
to
low
;
metazoan parasites, bacteria
and
environmental toxic contaminants
=
low
or
moderate
to
high
; and
biotoxin contaminant
=
moderate
to
very high
. Farmed turtles and their consumable products may constitute a significant reservoir of potential human pathogen and toxin contamination. Greater awareness among health-care professionals regarding both potential pathogens and toxic contaminants from sea turtles, as well as key signs and symptoms of sea turtle-related human disease, is important for the prevention and control of salient disease.