Phillip Arena

The wildlife fashion industry involves diverse products that include animal skin, feathers, fur, and curios as part of various apparel, footwear, and many other accessories. Positive messaging by advocates of the wildlife fashion industry frequently promotes products as sustainably sourced and beneficial for species conservation. To assess potential veracity of conservation claims by the wildlife fashion industry we conducted a rapid evidence assessment, brief survey, and novelty stress-test regarding data used by key regulatory sectors concerning four example species within the sector (Australian saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), reticulated pythons (Malayopython reticulatus), Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus), and South African ostriches (Struthio camelus australis)). We collated information via online literature searches, requests to government agencies, and the CITES Secretariat. No relevant data were provided by any government agency nor by CITES to support claims that the wildlife fashion industry benefits conservation of the four target species. We conclude that reliance on the commercial sector for objective and impartial data or other input appears imprudent, and that both the nature and source of information used for policy-making requires transparency and reform. We recommend wider use of the precautionary principle, which should be supported with high-level monitoring and enforcement, as well as improved information and education.

An understanding of spatial and thermal factors, two fundamentally intertwined elements, is essential to the health and welfare of captive reptiles; carers cannot address one without consideration of its influence on the other. This chapter highlights the need to recognise the many shortcomings of past practices, and urges individuals charged with keeping reptiles to become familiar and competent with new understandings revealed by research into the complex interplay of spatial and thermal factors. Essential to this issue is recognition that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach is never a good option. However, despite advances in our understanding of the spatio-thermal requirements of both wild and captive reptiles, there remains opportunity for abuse, exemplified by the highly restrictive rack system for housing snakes. In terms of spatio-thermal requirements, the modern, progressive reptile carer must become familiar, not only with species-specific requirements, but also the needs of individuals, taking into account the impact of seasonal and behavioural factors.

Captive animal welfare has benefited from various new technologies and a new generation of welfare-minded and better-informed individuals adopting more welfare-oriented practices. However, for captive reptiles, there remain many aspects that are grounded in and reflect a long history of arbitrary or folklore husbandry and advice, and reptile-keeping continues to be compromised by practices that benefit the keeper rather than the animal that is kept. This second edition of Health and Welfare of Captive Reptiles, like the first volume, contains a diversity of primary classical subjects, each hopefully constituting an advancement in our understanding of reptilian biology and meeting the associated needs of these animals in captivity. Some subjects, comprise miscellaneous considerations that, directly or indirectly, will have a significant bearing on reptile health and welfare. It is these factors that form the basis of this chapter. It is hoped that, at the very least, their inclusion may create or stimulate an awareness of other potential issues that may affect the well-being of captive reptiles.

Snakes are sentient animals and should be subject to the accepted general welfare principles of other species. However, they are also the only vertebrates commonly housed in conditions that prevent them from adopting rectilinear behavior (ability to fully stretch out). To assess the evidence bases for historical and current guidance on snake spatial considerations, we conducted a literature search and review regarding recommendations consistent with or specifying ≥1 × and <1 × snake length enclosure size. We identified 65 publications referring to snake enclosure sizes, which were separated into three categories: peer-reviewed literature (article or chapter appearing in a peer-reviewed journal or book, n = 31), grey literature (government or other report or scientific letter, n = 18), and opaque literature (non-scientifically indexed reports, care sheets, articles, husbandry books, website or other information for which originating source is not based on scientific evidence or where scientific evidence was not provided, n = 16). We found that recommendations suggesting enclosure sizes shorter than the snakes were based entirely on decades-old ‘rule of thumb’ practices that were unsupported by scientific evidence. In contrast, recommendations suggesting enclosure sizes that allowed snakes to fully stretch utilized scientific evidence and considerations of animal welfare. Providing snakes with enclosures that enable them to fully stretch does not suggest that so doing allows adequate space for all necessary normal and important considerations. However, such enclosures are vital to allow for a limited number of essential welfare-associated behaviors, of which rectilinear posturing is one, making them absolute minimum facilities even for short-term housing.

Exotic pets are essentially animals that are non-native to a region and/or non-domesticated. The trade in and keeping of exotic pets has been frequently criticized for the commonly inhumane and harmful practices that are associated with supply and keeping, including: animal welfare, species conservation, invasiveness, and public health and safety. Relatedly, a growing issue is that of unwanted exotic pets handed to animal care centers due to their overly demanding requirements and the confiscation of animals suffering from abuse. Mis-selling exotic species as ‘easy to keep’ or ‘beginner’ animals is widely regarded to be a major common and problematic factor. Efforts, post pet acquisition, to educate sellers and keepers to improve animal welfare and public health issues have proven unproductive. We propose that a system is required that facilitates decision-making at the interface between sale and purchase sectors, and that utilizes clear evidence-based labeling. We review current options for developing such a pet labeling scheme and recommend a novel approach based on the EMODE (‘Easy’, ‘Moderate’, ‘Difficult’ or ‘Extreme’) pet suitability assessment tool to provide a preventative educational approach to alleviating the multifactorial issues of concern.

Captive environments for snakes commonly involve small enclosures with dimensions that prevent occupants from adopting straight line body postures. In particular, the commercial, hobby, and pet sectors routinely utilize small vivaria and racking systems, although zoos and other facilities also commonly maintain at least some snakes under broadly similar conditions. Captive snakes may be the only vertebrates where management policy commonly involves deprivation of the ability and probable welfare need to freely extend the body to its natural full length. In this report we present background information concerning some relevant physical and behavioral characteristics of snakes, discuss pervading beliefs or folklore husbandry and its implications for animal welfare as well as factors concerning stress, its manifestations and measurement, and provide criteria for the assessment of captive snake welfare. As part of this review, we also conducted an observational component involving captive snakes and report that during 60-minute observation periods of 65 snakes 24(37%) adopted rectilinear or near rectilinear postures (stationary 42%; mobile 37%). Of the 31 snake species observed, 14(45%) adopted rectilinear or near rectilinear postures. Ectomorphological associations, normal behavior and innate drive states infer that snakes, even so-called sedentary species, utilize significant space as part of their normal lifestyles. We conclude that future policies for snake husbandry require a paradigm shift away from an erroneous belief system and toward recognising the greater spatial needs of these reptiles.

Various establishments exist in which animals are held for a variety of reasons. Historically, the management and inspection of animals in commerce and in private keeping have involved a considerable degree of arbitrary evaluation based on the personal experience of the vendor, keeper, advisor, or inspector. Accordingly, relevant protocols and standards are subject to considerable variation. Relatedly, diversity of traded and privately kept species generates significant challenges for those responsible for facility management and inspection alike. Animal welfare and public health and safety are constant and major concerns that require objective methodologies to monitor and control. This report focuses on establishments concerned with the boarding, breeding, storage, vending or handover of animals intended for human “companions” or “pets”, and aims to provide universal objective information for essential husbandry, inspection protocols and an allied inspection assessment tool for scoring establishments.